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| | Со временем становления эллинистической культуры (около III в. до н.э.) аттическая норма V-VI вв. до н.э. стала рекомендоваться как каноническая норма литературного языка (''аттикизм''). В последующие столетия, вплоть до XX в. н.э. (см. [[кафаревуса]]), аттический язык служил основой для греческой языковой культуры. | | Со временем становления эллинистической культуры (около III в. до н.э.) аттическая норма V-VI вв. до н.э. стала рекомендоваться как каноническая норма литературного языка (''аттикизм''). В последующие столетия, вплоть до XX в. н.э. (см. [[кафаревуса]]), аттический язык служил основой для греческой языковой культуры. |
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| − | ==Особенности== | + | == Особенности == |
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| | + | === Фонетика === |
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| | * В отличие от прочих ионийских диалектов сохранил {{lang-gr2|ᾱ}} после {{lang-gr2|ρ, ε, ι}}: | | * В отличие от прочих ионийских диалектов сохранил {{lang-gr2|ᾱ}} после {{lang-gr2|ρ, ε, ι}}: |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|νεᾱνίᾱς, χώρᾱ}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|νεηνίης, χώρη}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|νεᾱνίᾱς, χώρᾱ}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|νεηνίης, χώρη}}. |
| − | * Отсутствие дифтонга {{lang-gr2|ωυ}}. | + | |
| − | * Сохранение густого придыхания: | + | * Отсутствие [[дифтонг]]а {{lang-gr2|ωυ}}. |
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| | + | * Сохранение [[густое придыхание|густого придыхания]]: |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|κάθημαι}} «сижу» — ион. {{lang-gr2|κάτημαι}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|κάθημαι}} «сижу» — ион. {{lang-gr2|κάτημαι}}. |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|ἥλιος}} «солнце» — ион. {{lang-gr2|ἤλιος}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|ἥλιος}} «солнце» — ион. {{lang-gr2|ἤλιος}}. |
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| | * В староаттическом языке предлог {{lang-gr2|σύν}} «с» имел форму — {{lang-gr2|ξύν}}. В новоаттическом — совпадение с общеионийским койне ({{lang-gr2|σύν}}). | | * В староаттическом языке предлог {{lang-gr2|σύν}} «с» имел форму — {{lang-gr2|ξύν}}. В новоаттическом — совпадение с общеионийским койне ({{lang-gr2|σύν}}). |
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| | * Кластер {{lang-gr2|-γν-}} не упростился в {{lang-gr2|-ν-}}: | | * Кластер {{lang-gr2|-γν-}} не упростился в {{lang-gr2|-ν-}}: |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|γίγνομαι}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|γίνομαι (ῑ)}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|γίγνομαι}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|γίνομαι (ῑ)}}. |
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| | * Активные процессы слияния гласных в слове. | | * Активные процессы слияния гласных в слове. |
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| | * [[Перестановка количества]]: {{lang-gr2|ᾱᾰ}} → {{lang-gr2|ᾰᾱ}}: | | * [[Перестановка количества]]: {{lang-gr2|ᾱᾰ}} → {{lang-gr2|ᾰᾱ}}: |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|νεώς}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|νηός}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|νεώς}} — ион. {{lang-gr2|νηός}}. |
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| | * {{lang-gr2|κ, χ + ι}} → {{lang-gr2|ττ}} вместо общеионийского {{lang-gr2|σσ}}: | | * {{lang-gr2|κ, χ + ι}} → {{lang-gr2|ττ}} вместо общеионийского {{lang-gr2|σσ}}: |
| | : атт. {{lang-gr2|γλῶττα}} — общегреч. {{lang-gr2|γλῶσσα}}. | | : атт. {{lang-gr2|γλῶττα}} — общегреч. {{lang-gr2|γλῶσσα}}. |
| − | * Отсутствие асигматических аористов типа {{lang-gr2|ἤνεγκα, εἶπα}}.
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| − | * Отсутствие итеративного суффикса {{lang-gr2|-σκ-}}:
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| − | : атт. {{lang-gr2|ἔλεγον}} (супплетивная форма от {{lang-gr2|ἔπω}}) «говорил, говаривал» — ион. {{lang-gr2|εἴπεσκον}}.
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| − | <!-- '''Attic Greek''' is the [[prestige dialect]] of [[Ancient Greek]] that was spoken in [[Attica]], which includes [[Athens]]. Of the ancient dialects, it is the most similar to later Greek, and is the standard form of the language studied in courses of "Ancient Greek". It is sometimes included in Ionic.
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| − | == Происхождение и распространение ==
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| − | [[Greek language|Greek]] is an independent branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language classification, a family that includes [[English language|English]]. In historical times, it already existed in several dialects (see article on [[Ancient Greek dialects|Greek dialects]]), one of which was Attic.
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| − | The earliest written records in Greek date to the 16th to 11th centuries BC and exist in an Achaic writing system, [[Linear B]], belonging to the [[Mycenaean]] Greeks. The distinction between Eastern and Western Greek, it is logical to suppose, had arisen by [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times or before. [[Mycenaean Greek]] represents an early form of Eastern Greek, a main branching to which Attic also belongs. Because of the gap in the written record between the disappearance around 1200 BC of Linear B and the earliest inscriptions in the later [[Greek alphabet]] around 750 BC, <ref>See the summary by Susan Shelmerdine, ''[http://www.uncg.edu/cla/courses/shelmerd/grkalpha.htm Greek Alphabet]'', the section in the Indo-European Database on the ''[http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/script/greek.html Greek Alphabet]'' and the [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html ancientscripts.com site]This is a VERY dubious link</ref> the further development of dialects remains opaque. Later Greek literature spoke of three main dialect divisions: [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]], [[Doric Greek|Doric]] and [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]]. Attic was part of the Ionic dialect group. "[[Old Attic]]" is a term used for the dialect of [[Thucydides]] (460-400 BC) and the dramatists of Athens' remarkable 5th century; "[[New Attic]]" is used for the language of later writers. <ref> from Goodwin and Gulick's classic text "Greek Grammar" (1930) </ref>
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| − | Attic Greek persisted until the 4th century BC, when it was replaced by its similar but more universal offspring, [[Koine Greek]], or "the Common Dialect" ({{lang-gr|ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος}}). The cultural dominance of the Athenian Empire and the later adoption of Attic Greek by king [[Philip II of Macedon]] (382-336 BC), father of the conqueror [[Alexander the Great]], were the two keys that ensured the eventual victory of Attic over other Greek dialects and the spread of its descendant, ''Koine'', throughout Alexander's Hellenic empire. The rise of ''Koine'' is conventionally marked by the accession in 285 BC of (Greek-speaking) [[Ptolemy II]], who ruled from [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] and launched the "Alexandrian period", when the city of Alexandria and its expatriate Greek-medium scholars flourished.<ref>Goodwin and Gulick in "Greek Grammar"</ref>
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| − | In its day, the original range of the spoken Attic dialect included [[Attica]], [[Euboea]], some of the central [[Cyclades]] islands, and northern Aegean coastal areas of [[Thrace]] (i.e. [[Chalcidice]], {{lang-gr|Χαλκιδική}}). The closely related dialect called "Ionian" was spoken along the western and northwestern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) on the east side of the [[Aegean Sea]]. Eventually, literary Attic (and the classic texts written in it) came to be widely studied far beyond its original homeland, first in the Classical civilizations of the Mediterranean ([[Ancient Rome]] and the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]]), and later in the [[Muslim world]], Europe, and wherever European civilization spread to other parts of the world.
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| − | == Литература на аттическом диалекте ==
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| − | The earliest recorded [[Greek literature]], that attributed to [[Homer]] and dated to the 7th or 8th centuries BC, was not written in the Attic dialect, but in "Old Ionic". Athens and its dialect remained relatively obscure until its constitutional changes led to democracy in 594 BC, the start of the [[classical period]] and the rise of Athenian influence.
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| − | The first extensive works of literature in Attica are the plays of the dramatists [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aristophanes]] in the 5th century BC. The works of the Athenian philosopher [[Plato]] also date to that remarkable century of literature. The military exploits of the Athenians led to some universally read and admired history, the works of [[Thucydides]] and [[Xenophon]]. Slightly less known because they are more technical and legal are the orations by [[Antiphon]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Lysias]], [[Isocrates]] and many others. The Attic Greek of the philosopher [[Aristotle]] (384-322 BC), whose mentor was Plato, dates from the period in which Classical Attic transitioned into ''koine''.
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| − | Students learning Ancient Greek today usually start with the Attic dialect, proceeding, depending on their interest, to the ''koine'' of the [[New Testament]] and other early [[Christian]] writings, or [[Homeric Greek]] to read the works of Homer and Hesiod, or [[Ionic Greek]] to read the histories of Herodotus or the medical texts of Hippocrates.
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| − | == Аттический алфавит ==
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| − | The classic Attic Alphabet is made up of the familiar 24 (capital) Greek letters: {{lang-gr2|Α, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ, Ι, Κ, Λ, Μ, Ν, Ξ, Ο, Π, Ρ, Σ, Τ, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, Ω}}.
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| − | It has seven vowels: {{lang-gr2|Α, Ε, Η}} (long ''e''){{lang-gr2|, Ι, Ο, Υ, Ω}} (long ''o''). The rest are consonants.
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| − | The first form of written Greek was not the [[Greek alphabet]] as it later became known, but the [[syllabary]] known as [[Linear B]], in which one character stood for the combination of a consonant and a vowel.
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| − | The first use of what became the classic [[Greek alphabet]] remains unknown. By the time it was attested for in general use in the 8th century BC<ref>The Encyclopedia Britannica mentions the [[Dipylon inscription|Dipylon vase]] from Athens as the first, giving a date of 725</ref> it was already divided into a western and eastern variety, from which the Etruscan/Latin alphabets and the later Greek alphabet came respectively. What is today referred to as the Greek alphabet was originally the [[Phoenician alphabet]] borrowed to spell Greek words, with some originally [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] consonantal letters — such as ''aleph''<ref>Strictly speaking, Semitic ''aleph'' is not a "consonant" but only a "chair" for any unrepresented vowel.</ref> (Greek [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] = '''{{lang-gr2|A}}'''), ''he'' (Greek [[Epsilon]] = '''{{lang-gr2|E}}'''), and '' 'ayin'' (Greek [[Omicron]] = '''{{lang-gr2|O}}''') — used to represent Greek vowels. The creation of true vowel letters was the most revolutionary linguistic contribution of the Greeks to the development of the alphabet. (For the early forms of the letters, the full complement of letters, and the first inscriptions, see the article [[Greek alphabet]].)
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| − | As the utility of an alphabet became evident, local varieties (sometimes called "epichoric" <ref>Buck, ''Greek Dialects'', uses this term.</ref>) came into use. The early Attic alphabet still did not distinguish between long and short vowels (i.e. ''{{lang-gr2|ε}}'' and ''{{lang-gr2|η}}'', ''{{lang-gr2|ο}}'' and ''{{lang-gr2|ω}}''). It lacked the letters '''{{lang-gr2|Ψ}}''' (''psi'') and '''{{lang-gr2|Ξ}}''' (''xi''), using '''{{lang-gr2|ΦΣ}}''' and '''{{lang-gr2|ΧΣ}}''' instead. Lower case letters ({{lang-gr2|α, β, γ,}} etc.) and [[iota subscript]] (a mediaeval invention) were still far in the future. [[Digamma]] (no longer in use in the Classical period) stood for a W.
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| − | Meanwhile in [[Ionia]] across the Aegean, a new [[Ionic alphabet|Ionic]] form of the Attic alphabet was coming into being. It distinguished between long and short ''o'' ('''{{lang-gr2|Ω}}''' and '''{{lang-gr2|Ο}}''') and stopped using '''{{lang-gr2|Η}}''' (''eta'') to mark the rough breathing (i.e. ''H'' sound). Instead it created a sign for a long ''e'' with it, keeping the letter '''{{lang-gr2|Ε}}''' for the short ''e''. The digamma dropped out, and '''{{lang-gr2|Ψ}}''' and '''{{lang-gr2|Ξ}}''' came into existence, bringing the Attic alphabet to its classic 24-letter form. By 403 BCE, the by now internationally experienced city-state of [[Athens]] had perceived a need to standardize the alphabet, so it officially adopted the Ionic alphabet in that year. Many other cities had already adopted it. {{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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| − | When the ordinary citizen of Ancient Greece read inscriptions and the educated Greek read literature, what they saw was an all upper case Ionic alphabet: {{lang-gr2|Α, Β, Γ, Δ,}} etc. By the time lower case letters, iota subscripts, accent marks, rough or smooth breathing marks over letters, and punctuation appeared in written Greek in the Middle Ages, Attic Greek writings had not been produced by native speakers for some centuries. Ancient Attic literature as published today thus makes use of a number of such non-ancient features. Uninformed modern readers might think that what they see on the page is the writing system exactly as the ancient Greeks used it in Classical Greece, but it is really Ancient Greek as transcribed by mediaeval [[Byzantine]] scribes.
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| − | ==Фонология==
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| − | A few of the most salient phonological characteristics of the Attic dialect are stated below.
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| − | ===Гласные===
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| − | * Attic-Ionic changes an Indo-European ''ā'' to ''ē'' (long {{lang-gr2|α}} to {{lang-gr2|η}}); e.g., {{lang-la|māter}}/ Attic ''mētēr'' ("mother"). Attic keeps the ''ā'' after ''e'', ''i'', ''r'': Attic ''chōrā''/ Ionic ''chōrē'', "country". Apparent exceptions are from subsequent sound changes: Attic *''korwā'' to *''korwē'' to ''korē'', "girl".
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| − | * East Greek changes an Indo-European short ''a'' to short ''e'': ''Artemis''/''Artamis''.
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| − | * Attic/Ionic interchanges ''i'' and ''u'' to assimilate with an ''i'' or ''u'' in a following syllable: ''biblion''/''bublion'', "book".
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| − | * In cases where an earlier ''ě'' or ''ǒ'' become ''ē'' or ''ō'', Attic has spurious (non-original) diphthongs: ''eimi''/''ēmi'' from *''esmi'', "I am", where the e lengthens to compensate for loss of ''s''.
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| − | * Ancient Greek {{lang-gr2|υ}} was originally pronounced as the ''oo'' in ''food'' and was replaced in other dialects by {{lang-gr2|ου}}, but in Attic developed into a sound like the French ''u'' or German ''ü'': Attic ''kurios'', Boeotian ''kourios'', "lord."
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| − | * In the original long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'', ''ēi'', ''ōi'', the ''i'' stopped being pronounced. The mediaeval iota subscript captured this fact.
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| − | * ''Ā'' or ''ǎ'' followed by ''ě'' or ''ē'' contracts to ''ā'', by ''ô'' or ''ō'' to ''ō'' in Attic: ''nikā‑ein'' to ''nikān'', "to conquer"; *''Poseidāwōn'' to *''Poseidāōn'' to ''Poseidōn'', "Poseidon". However, ''ě'' followed by ''ā'' remains uncontracted: ''Timěās'' (personal name); while ''ě'' followed by ''ě'' becomes the spurious diphthong, ''ei'': *''treies'' to *''trees'' to ''treis'', "three", and ''ě'' followed by ''ǒ'' becomes the spurious diphthong, ''ou'': *''geněsǒs'' to *''geněǒs'' to ''genous'', "of a gens".
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| − | * In Attic ''ē'' followed by a short vowel may become ''ě'' followed by a long vowel (quantitative metathesis): epic ''nēos'' but Attic ''něōs'', "of a ship"; Ionic ''basilēǒs'' but Attic ''basilěōs'', "of a king."
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| − | * Sometimes one phoneme is created from two by taking away one of them (hyphaeresis): Attic ''bǒēthŏs'' for epic ''bǒēthŏǒs'', "help".
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| − | * Long diphthongs are shortened before {{IPA|/s/}}. This occurs mainly in dat. pl. in 3rd declension: ''basilēw''‑ + ''si(n)'' > ''basilěusi(n)'', but Ionic ''basilēusi(n)''.
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| − | This is not relevant to Attic: The [[Homeric]] dialect was an artificial compound, which resembled Ionic; but it also differed from Attic in losing the augment on the past tenses, and much more frequent use of the dual and other archaic forms.
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| − | ===Согласные===
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| − | * Attic typically has ''tt'' ({{lang-gr2|ττ}}) where Ionic has ''ss'' ({{lang-gr2|σσ}}). Buck explains it as an original *''ky'' or *''chy''‑ becoming ''tt'' and then changing to ''ss'' in Ionic, as in ''glotta''/''glossa'', "tongue", from *''glochya'' (Hofmann). To this he adds *''ty'' and *''tw'' in some cases, as in ''tettares''/''tessares'', "four", {{lang-la|quattuor}}. This feature did not make its way into Koine Greek, which had ''gloossa'' and ''thalassa'' rather than ''glootta'' and ''thalatta''.
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| − | * Attic-Ionic uses moveable ''n'', an ''n'' inserted at the end of a word ending in a vowel to prevent collision with a vowel at the start of the next word, under some circumstances, such as a dative or third person plural ending in ‑{{lang-gr2|σι}}; or to a third person singular ending in ‑{{lang-gr2|ε}}; or to ''esti'', is. For example, ''pasi legousi'', "they speak to all", but ''pasin elegon'', "they were speaking to all".
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| − | * Attic lost the ''w'' (digamma) before historical times: Boeotian ''kalwos'', Attic ''kalos'', "good."
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| − | * Many dialects, including Attic, changed ''t'' to ''s'' before ''i'' or ''u'': ''Eutretis'', Boeotian place name, Attic ''Eutresis''; Doric ''tu'', Attic-Ionic ''su'', "thou."
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| − | * ''ss'' became ''s'' in Attic.
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| − | * Attic is one of the ''h''‑dialects (Buck's term); that is, the spiritus asper, or rough breathing, typically came from a dropped initial ''s'' or ''i'', but the ''h''‑dialects retained the spiritus; the others did not: Attic ''histamen'' (*''sist''‑), Cretan ''istamen'', "we stand."
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| − | == Морфология ==
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| − | Morphology as used here means "word formation". It can also include [[inflection]], the formation of the forms of [[declension]] or [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] by suffixing endings, but that topic is presented under [[Ancient Greek grammar]].
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| − | * Attic tends to replace the ‑''ter'' "doer of" suffix with ‑''tes'': ''dikastes'' for ''dikaster'' "judge".
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| − | * The Attic adjectival ending ‑''eios'' and corresponding noun ending, both two-syllable with the [[diphthong]] ''ei'', stand in place of ''ēios'', with three syllables, in other dialects: ''politeia'', Cretan ''politēia'', "constitution", both from ''politewia'', where the ''w'' drops out.
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| − | ==Грамматика==
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| − | Attic Greek grammar is to a large extent [[ancient Greek grammar]], or at least when the latter topic is presented it is with the peculiarities of the Attic dialect. This section only mentions some of the Attic peculiarities.
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| − | ===Склонение===
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| − | With regard to [[declension]], the stem is the part of the declined word to which case endings are suffixed. In the ''a''‑, alpha‑ or first declension feminines, the stem ends in long ''a'', parallel to the Latin first declesion. In Attic-Ionic the stem vowel has changed to long ''e'' (eta) in the singular, except (in Attic only) after ''e'', ''i'', ''r'': ''gnome'', ''gnomes'', ''gnome(i)'', ''gnomen'', etc., "opinion", but ''thea'', ''theas'', ''thea(i)'', ''thean'', etc., "goddess" .
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| − | The plural is the same in both cases: ''gnomai'' and ''theai'', but other sound changes were more important in its formation. For example, original ‑''as'' in the nominative plural was replaced by the diphthong, ‑''ai'', which did not undergo the change of ''a'' to ''e''. In the few ''a''-stem masculines, the genitive singular follows the ''o''‑declension: ''stratiotēs'', ''stratiotou'', ''stratiotēi'', etc.
| + | * Для новоаттического диалекта характерно следующее изменение (т.н. закон Вандриеса): ударение перемещалось на слог назад, если слово имело исход на амфибрахий[9] и ударение на втором слоге с конца, напр. {{lang-gr2|ἑτοῖμος}} «готовый» → {{lang-gr2|ἕτοιμος}}, но {{lang-gr2|ἀρχαῖος}} «древний» → {{lang-gr2|ἀρχαῖος}}. |
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| − | In the ''o''‑, omicron‑ or second declension, mainly masculines (but some feminines), the stem ends in ''o'' or ''e'', which is composed in turn of a root plus the [[thematic vowel]], an ''o'' or ''e'' in [[Indo-European ablaut]] series parallel to similar formations of the verb. It is the equivalent of the Latin second declension. The alternation of Greek ‑''os'' and {{lang-la|‑us}} in the nominative singular is familiar to readers of Greek and Latin.
| + | === Глагольная морфология === |
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| − | In Attic Greek an original [[genitive]] singular ending *‑''osyo'' after losing the ''s'' (as happens in all the dialects) lengthens the stem ''o'' to the spurious diphthong ‑''ou'' (see above under Phonology, Vowels): ''logos'' "the word", ''logou'' from *''logosyo'', "of the word". The dative plural of Attic‑Ionic had ‑''oisi'', which appears in early Attic but simplifies to ‑''ois'' in later: ''anthropois'' "to or for the men".
| + | * Отсутствие асигматических [[аорист]]ов типа {{lang-gr2|ἤνεγκα, εἶπα}}. |
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| − | ==Классический аттический язык==
| + | * Отсутствие [[итератив]]ного суффикса {{lang-gr2|-σκ-}}: |
| − | ''See also [[Classical Athens]] and [[Classical Latin]]''
| + | : атт. {{lang-gr2|ἔλεγον}} (супплетивная форма от {{lang-gr2|ἔπω}}) «говорил, говаривал» — ион. {{lang-gr2|εἴπεσκον}} «говаривал». |
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| − | Classical Attic may refer either to the varieties of Attic Greek spoken, and written in Greek [[majuscule]]<ref>Only the excavated inscriptions of the era. The Classical Attic works are transmitted in uncial manuscripts</ref> during the 5th and 4th centuries BC (Classical-era Attic) or to the Hellenistic and Roman<ref>Including the Byzantine Atticists</ref> era standardized Attic Greek, mainly on the language of [[Attic orators]], and written in Greek [[uncial]] (''good Attic'' and vehement rival of vulgar or [[Koine Greek]])
| + | * В глаголах типа {{lang-gr2|τίθημι}} формы [[желательное наклонение|желательного наклонения]] заменены тематическими: |
| | + | : атт. {{lang-gr2|τίθοιμι}} «вот бы я положил» — ион. {{lang-gr2|τίθειμι}}. |
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| − | ===Разновидности аттического диалекта=== | + | === Лексика === |
| − | The varieties of Classical-era Attic are:
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| − | *the [[vernacular]] and poetic dialect of [[Aristophanes]]
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| − | *the dialect of [[Thucydides]] (mixed Old Attic with neologisms)
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| − | *the dialect and orthography of Old Attic inscriptions in Attic alphabet before 403 BC (Ionic alphabet-reform by archon [[Eucleides]]). Thucydidean orthography, albeit transmitted, is close to them.
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| − | *the conventionalized and poetic dialect of the Attic tragic poets, mixed with [[Epic Greek|Epic]] and [[Ionic Greek]] and used in the episodes. (In the choral odes conventional [[Doric Greek|Doric]] is used).
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| − | *Formal Attic of [[Attic orators]], [[Plato]]<ref>Platonic style is poetic</ref>, [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristotle]], imitated by the [[Atticist]]s or Neo-Attic writers. It is considered ''good'' or ''standard'' Attic. -->
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| − | ==См. также==
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| − | *[[Греческий алфавит]]
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| − | *[[Древнегреческий язык]]
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| − | *[[Греческий язык]]
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| − | *[[Древнегреческие диалекты]]
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| − | *[[Аттическая система счисления]]
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| − | ==Литература==
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| − | *Goodwin, William W. Greek Grammar. 1879
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| − | *Smyth, Herbert Weir. Greek Grammar. 1920
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| − | *Buck, Carl Darling. The Greek Dialects. 1955
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| − | ==Внешние ссылки==
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| − | *[http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/~u0013314/greekg.htm Greek Grammar on the Web]
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| − | *[http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ancgreek/ancient_greek_start.html Ancient Greek Tutorials] - provides attic Greek audio pronunciations of letters and words
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| − | *[http://www.textkit.com/index.php Textkit - Greek and Latin Learning Tools]
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| − | *[http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/toc_uni.htm Smyth's Greek Grammar]
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| − | *[http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/grkol-0-X.html Classical (Attic) Greek Online]
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| − | ==Примечания==
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| − | <references/>
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| | | | |
| − | [[Категория:Древнегреческий язык]]
| + | * Обилие заимствований (особенно в новоаттическом): ионизмов, доризмов, варваризмов и т.д. Обусловлено общегреческим качеством диалекта. |
| − | [[Категория:Греческие диалекты]]
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